ch/shell的调查发现， 1970 年列名"fortune 500"排行榜的公司，有三分之一已经消声匿迹。依royal dutch/shell的估计， 大型企业的平均寿命不及四十年，约为人类寿命的一半！

大部份失败的企业，事先都会有许多的徵兆显示它们已出了问题，然而即使有少数管理者已微略察觉这些现象，也不会太留意。整体而言，组织往往无法辨清逼近的危机，无法体认这些危机的后果，或提出正确的对策。

也许在适者生存的法则下，如此汰旧换新对社会是好的，可把经济土壤重新翻过，重新把生产资源分配给新的企业和新的文化。然而对於员工及企业主，这是很痛苦的事。但如果高死亡率并非那些问题企业才会面临的威胁，而是所有企业都会面临的问题时，要怎办？如果即使是目前最成功的企业，其实还是很差劲的学习者，那怎办？

learning disabilities are tragic in children, especially when they go undetected. they are no less tragic in organisations, where they also go largely undetected. the first step in curing them is to begin to identify the seven learning disabilities:

1. i am my position (思考局限)
we are trained to be loyal to our jobs -- so much so that we confuse them with our own identities. when a large american steel company began closing plants in the early 1980s, it offered to train the displaced steelworkers for new jobs. but the training never "took"; the workers drifted into unemployment and odd jobs instead. psychologists came in to find out why, and found the steelworkers suffering from acute identity crises. "how could i do anything else?" asked the workers. "i am a lathe operator."

when asked what they do for a living, most people describe the tasks they perform everyday, not the purpose of the greater enterprise in which they take part. most see themselves within a "system" over which they have little or no influence. they "do their job", put in their time, and try to cope with the forces outside of their control. consequently, they tend to see their responsibilities as limited to the boundaries of their position.

recently, managers from a detroit auto maker told me of stripping down a japanese import to understand why the japanese were able to achieve extraordinary precision and reliability at lower cost on a particular assembly process. they found the same standard type of bolt used three times on the engine block. each time it mounted a different type of component. on the amercian car, the same assembly required three different bolts, which required three different wrenches and three different inventories of bolts -- making the car much slower and more costly to assemble. why did the americans use three separate bolts? because the design organisation in detroit had three groups of engineers, each responsible for "their component only". the japanese had one designer responsible for the entire engine mounting, and probably much more. the irony is that each of the three group

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